The proceedings of the workshop were summarized in a report, entitled “Going beyond electrification to achieve a low-carbon world by 2050: The contribution of direct solar fuels technologies” which now available and can be downloaded here.

The report gives an overview of current challenges of “Sunlight-to-X” technologies and the key R&D focus areas. It also includes key recommendations to foster development of those technologies, such as the importance of benchmarking and common standards, the need for breakthroughs in the engineering of “Sunlight-to-X” devices as well as demonstration projects. Importantly, it highlights the most pressing R&D priorities, such as catalyst engineering, systems integration, recycling, and circularity.

In November 2025, SUNERGY was also represented at an event to celebrate the 100th Hydrogen TCP ExCo (Executive Committee) at the IEA in Paris, with the participation of Ann Magnuson, Uppsala University, Frederic Chandezon, CEA (panelist at a round table) and Vincent Artero, CEA (speaker on the vision and challenges of “Sunlight-to-X” technologies) from CEA.

As an outcome of the event, the ExCo validated the proposition of lauching a new Task on “Sunlight-to-X” technologies under the umbrella of the Hydrogen TCP. The detailed content and work programme of this new Task will be defined in the coming months by an international team – including SUNERGY members – lead by Greg Metha at University of Adelaide, Australia.

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Over the course of this Coordination and Support Action, partners came together to define what the future of this field should look like and how to bring it to life: drafting strategic documents, developing practical tools, organizing workshops to gather input and foster collaboration (including at global level) and preparing pathways to support the eco-system and the field beyond the SUNER-C project to unlock its full potential and contribute to the EU carbon neutrality objectives.

One of SUNER-C’s outcomes has been the development of the Technological Roadmap, which identifies short-, medium-, and long-term critical milestones toward the broad implementation of solar fuels and chemicals in society. The roadmap also includes a blueprint for implementation, proposing projects and activities and addressing aspects like financing, exploitation, and societal impact.

As Prof. Bert Weckhuysen, SUNER-C coordinator, stated, “We are proud of the many results obtained and happy with the strengthening of our community. Connecting the right stakeholders is key to making our society more sustainable and circular.”

Previously, the team created a Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) that lays out concrete actions for the coming years, aligning technological innovation with climate goals and industrial needs. The SRIA was shaped through an inclusive process, including a major joint workshop that gathered over 140 stakeholders from industry, academia and policy.

Another key achievement is the development of a Community Mapping tool. This interactive platform allows users to explore and filter R&D&I actors across the full value chain of solar fuels and chemicals categorized by technology-related, infrastructure-related and cross-cutting competencies, as well as by country. The platform remains open, and stakeholders are encouraged to add their institutions via a simple form to help expand and strengthen the map.

Dr. Frédéric Chandezon, SUNER-C deputy coordinator, reflected on the project’s collaborative spirit, saying, “We have fond memories of the exciting in-depth discussions held in Brussels, Paris, Madrid, Ghent, and Utrecht. Our diverse backgrounds have truly enriched the conversations that help drive SUNER-C’s ambitions forward.”

To inspire the next generations, and everyone curious about clean energy, the project developed an open, interactive Educational Platform designed for all audiences, from high school students to industry professionals. In line with this goal, a comprehensive book titled Unlocking the Future of Renewable Energy and Chemistry through Catalysis was developed by SUNER-C contributors, including Vasile Parvulescu, Bert Weckhuysen, Siglinda Perathoner, and Gabriele Centi.

As SUNER-C was coming to a close, the project’s Final Conference included a Policy Dinner at the European Parliament. The event was hosted by MEP Stefan Köhler, who shared public statements available to watch in this video:

The event brought together EU policymakers, researchers and industry representatives to discuss how sustainable fuels and chemicals can contribute to the EU’s Clean Industrial Deal (CID).

Although SUNER-C has officially concluded, Prof. Bert Weckhuysen emphasized: “The spirit and infrastructure SUNER-C built are here to stay. The SUNERGY community, of which SUNER-C was a key driver, will keep connecting experts, sharing insights, and pushing large-scale innovation in solar fuels and chemicals.”

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Policy Dinner at the European Parliament

On 14 May, the SUNERGY Policy Dinner brought together EU policymakers, researchers and industry representatives to discuss how sustainable fuels and chemicals can contribute to the EU’s Clean Industrial Deal (CID).

Hosted by Stefan Köhler, Member of the European Parliament, the event underscored the strategic importance of fossil-free sustainable fuels and chemicals for Europe’s climate objectives, competitiveness, and energy resilience. The programme featured keynote contributions from:

• Beatrice Coda (Head of Unit, Clean Energy Transitions – DG Research & Innovation, European Commission) who spoke about the importance of research and innovation in driving the CID.
• Tudy Bernier (Policy Director, CO₂ Value Europe) who offered industry’s perspective on scale-up needs and market challenges.
• Bert Weckhuysen (Professor, Utrecht University, SUNER-C Coordinator) who shared insights from his recent Nature paper and editorial article:“The refinery of the future.”
• Pedro Francisco (Policy Officer, DG MOVE, European Commission) who outlined key policy needs for advancing sustainable aviation fuels.

The discussions emphasized the critical need to scale up technologies, establish robust supply chains, and integrate sustainable fuels and chemicals into EU industrial policy. The evening concluded with an interactive session, during which attendees contributed questions and reflections.

3rd SUNER-C  General Assembly

The project’s Final Conference took place on 15 May. It opened with remarks from SUNER-C coordinators Prof. Bert Weckhuysen and Dr. Frédéric Chandezon,  followed by a keynote address from Dr. Nicola Armaroli (CNR) emphasizing the role of solar fuels in a climate-neutral future.

Further discussions included a joint presentation by WP1 and WP3 leaders with industry stakeholders on the SUNERGY Roadmap and Blueprint, outlining  the initiative’s long-term vision. The SUNER-C advocacy team also delivered insights from the recent parliamentary dinner, summarizing the key topics discussed and conclusions.

All previous speakers participated in a panel discussion addressing the future of solar fuels and chemicals as well as the next steps for SUNERGY.

The 3rd General Assembly concluded with a creative session led by designer Jacob de Baan. Contributing his unique approach to integrating sustainability into design thinking within the project, he introduced probes intended to stimulate discussion and debate.

7th SUNER-C Consortium Meeting

On the last day, project partners reconvened for the final Consortium Meeting. The session focused on presenting final work package updates, wrapping up deliverables and reviewing administrative and financial reporting.

Frédéric Chandezon concluded by encouraging to continue building on the SUNER-C path through future projects aligned with Horizon Europe and the Clean Industrial Deal, and thanked all partners for their contributions to the project since its launch.  Hence, the SUNER-C program provided a breeding ground for new public-private initiatives, as well as for shaping the necessary legislation and societal support to create a circular society in which solar energy is a key component to make sustainable fuels, chemicals and materials.

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The symposium began with a plenary session and continued with two series of parallel sessions, covering both technological advancements and societal aspects, such as local initiatives, municipal involvement and policy frameworks. Participants had great opportunities to network with fellow researchers, industry professionals and policymakers. The poster session during lunch and coffee breaks facilitated discussions on key developments in energy transition, fostering further collaboration.

SUNERGY / SUNER-C was represented with a poster that highlighted the ambitions of the SUNERGY community. The presentation also featured the MyLeaf demonstration setup, providing insights into its progress and future plans.

Prof. Huub de Groot and business developer Serkan Esiner from Leiden University were recently interviewed on the role of research support professionals in translating scientific discoveries into real-world applications. A key highlight was the above mentioned MyLeaf, a pioneering demonstration setup that generates hydrogen through solar water splitting.

Read the full Leiden Research Support: transforming research findings into products that benefit society – Leiden University interview!

Looking ahead, exciting developments are in motion to integrate MyLeaf with a smart building in Leiden, creating an off-grid system that exemplifies decentralized solar fuel production. Once implemented, this initiative will serve as a powerful proof-of-concept for off-grid energy solutions, demonstrating the potential of decentralized solar fuels and chemicals at both individual and neighborhood scales.

Beyond its technical impact, this collaboration will help raise public awareness about sustainable energy applications. Additionally, evaluating public acceptance of such technologies will provide valuable insights for the SUNER-C project, further supporting the transition to a more sustainable energy future.

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Strategic planning at the 6th SUNER-C Consortium Meeting

On February 12, the SUNER-C partners met at Sorbonne Université for the 6th Consortium Meeting, where they reviewed project progress and outlined long-term goals.

A highlight was a presentation by Philippe Schild (DG-RTD, European Commission), who explained how the planning of the next Horizon Europe’s 2026-27 Work Programme is advancing and its alignment with EU priorities.

The first day concluded with a session focused on defining clear objectives for scaling solar fuel technologies as part of the SUNERGY Blueprint. This work set the stage for the upcoming EIC – SUNERGY Joint Roadmapping event in Brussels on March 26th – 27th, where stakeholders will refine strategies for advancing solar fuels and chemicals.

Multi-perspective dialogue on solar fuels innovation

The next day, the Joint SUNERGY/REFINE Workshop was also held at Sorbonne Université. This practical session had the title: “Innovating Solar Fuels: A Multi-Perspective Discussion on Overcoming Barriers and Creating Pathways to Sustainable Energy Solutions.”

The event explored the sustainable production of isobutanol through artificial photosynthesis, an innovative approach currently being investigated by the REFINE EU project. The discussions extended beyond technology, addressing public acceptance, risk perception and economic feasibility. Participants engaged in an interactive “World Café” methodology, which enhanced the dialogue between academic scientists, engineers, policymakers and industry stakeholders.

Global collaboration at IEA’s headquarters

The final event, held on February 14 at the International Energy Agency (IEA), was a joint workshop between IEA Hydrogen TCP, Mission Innovation and SUNER-C.

The discussions centered on the direct use of sunlight to produce hydrogen and carbon-based molecules. Paul Lucchese from IEA Hydrogen TCP, Philippe Schild representing Mission Innovation and Frédéric Chandezon representing SUNER-C opened the session.

The first part of the day featured presentations from Bill Tumas (NREL/Mission Innovation), Ann Magnuson (Uppsala University/SUNER-C), and Carina Faber (EIC). They provided a broad perspective on solar fuels, emphasizing their role in future energy systems. Speakers also introduced the SUNER-C agenda, outlining its vision for a climate-neutral future and explored solar fuel technologies and their industrial applications.

Amalia Pizarro (IEA) followed with a presentation on “Net-Zero & Sunlight to X,” highlighting the role of solar fuels in achieving global climate goals.

The core of the event was structured around three key panel discussions tackling critical challenges in solar fuel research and application:

1. Integration of Solar Fuels into Industrial and Energy Systems – Experts debated the viability of scaling solar fuels for widespread adoption. This pannel was moderated by Muriel Matheron (CEA) and Joachim John (Imec).
2. Business Models and Competitiveness – Led by Philippe Schild (Mission Innovation, European Commission) and Alberto Giaconia (ENEA), panelists examined the economic landscape of hydrogen production versus carbon-based fuels.
3. Accelerating Research and Innovation (R&I) through International Collaboration – Discussions highlighted ways to fast-track innovation through cross-border cooperation. This last pannel was Moderated by Ann Magnuson (Uppsala University) & Teo Martin (ENEA).

The workshop concluded with a summary on the challenges and opportunities in solar-driven fuel innovation. Experts emphasized the importance of continued collaboration, investment in research and policy support to accelerate the development of solar fuel technologies.

With a day full of insights and dialogue, the event at IEA reinforced the growing significance of solar fuels in shaping a sustainable energy future.

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From November 25 to 27, 2024, Madrid served as the the meeting point for a global dialogue on sustainable energy solutions. Researchers, industry stakeholders and policymakers gathered for a series of events jointly organised by SUNERGY, the SUNER-C project, the Spanish FOTOFUEL network and the UK Solar Chemicals Network.

25th November: FOTOFUEL Congress and school on sustainable fuels

Held at IMDEA Energía, the FOTOFUEL Congress – School was dedicated to showcasing research and innovation in the field of solar fuels and chemicals,  with a particular emphasis on improving the efficiency of photocatalysts, hydrogen production and CO₂ utilisation.

Participants were welcomed by Víctor de la Peña O’Shea from IMDEA Energía, followed by a plenary talk by James Durrant of Imperial College London, who discussed charge separation and stabilisation in photocatalysis materials for solar-driven water splitting.

The event featured talks from leading experts in solar energy and photocatalysis from both UK’s Solar Chemicals Network and the Spanish FOTOFUEL network. Click here to check all the speakers and their presentation titles.

26th November: SUNERGY Spanish/Southern EU stakeholder event

The second day was dedicated to the SUNERGY Spanish/Southern EU Stakeholder event, which took place in Community of Madrid premises and focused on policy and industrial perspectives on renewable energy vectors. It began with welcome remarks from Víctor de la Peña O’Shea, Bert Weckhuysen (Utrecht University, SUNERGY/SUNER-C coordinator) and Pedro Mora (PTECO₂).

Miriam Bueno Lorenzo, Senior Advisor at the Spanish Office of Climate Change, presented the Spanish National Plan for Energy and Climate. This was followed by a presentation from Marcos Escudero Olano, Head of the Industrial Policy Division at the Spanish Ministry of Industry, Commerce, and Tourism, who discussed the Net-Zero Industry Act and its implementation in Spain.

Philippe Schild, Senior Expert at the European Commission, then presented the Mission Innovation Sunlight-to-X innovation community, while Bert Weckhuysen gave an overview of the challenging requirements for a “refinery of the future”. Finally, Maximilian Fleischer from Siemens Energy shared an industrial perspective on the need for green molecules to achieve decarbonisation.

The event wrapped up with a panel discussion on the opportunities for the development of solar fuels and chemicals, featuring Bert Weckhuysen, Max Fleischer, Carlos Prieto (Moeve), and Miguel Ángel Hernando (Track – Técnicas Reunidas).

The afternoon sessions transitioned into a more focused setting, with SUNER-C partners convening for their 5th Consortium Meeting in close collaboration with the UK Solar Chemicals Network. These discussions included updates on the progress of the SUNER-C project, developments within work packages and planning for upcoming deliverables. The session also featured the “SUNERGY Beyond SUNER-C” workshop,  during which participants explored new ideas and mapped future collaboration strategies in breakout groups, reinforcing the network’s commitment to ensuring continued progress and innovation in the future.

The highlight of the meeting was a keynote presentation by Professor Erwin Reisner from the University of Cambridge, on “Integrated Solar Fuels Devices for Sustainable Chemical Industries.”

27th November: UK-SCN x SUNERGY x MI workshop

The UK-Solar Chemicals Network x SUNERGY x Mission Innovation workshop provided a platform for members of these communities and networks to align efforts across Europe, the United Kingdom and the international stage, highlighting how initiatives like SUNER-C can contribute to advancing and scaling solar fuels technology.

Frédéric Chandezon (CEA) gave a presentation on existint and future funding prospects in the field of solar fuels and chemicals within Horizon Europe, offering guidance on how researchers and institutions can leverage them. The event also featured early career researcher pitches, offering scientists from universities and research institutions from the UK and Europe a platform to share their innovative ideas and current projects, with the aim to build consortia that will reinforce the links between the UK and EU innovation communities in this field.

To conclude, Bill Tumas (NREL) moderated a panel discussion focused on identifying remaining gaps in technology, funding and policy beyond the current opportunities for Solar-to-X technologies.

The three-day series of events highlighted the importance of collaboration between research, policy, industry and society as a whole, to drive the development of solar fuels as a key technology for the clean energy transition.

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The document summarizes the event that took place on 4 and 5 June 2024, organized by the EIC (European Innovation Council) together with EnergyVille (where the sessions were hosted), imec, EuroTech Universities Alliance, SUNERGY and several-EU funded projects: CATART, CO₂NDOR, FlowPhotoChem, and SUNER-C.

The event joined over 130 people to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in technologies such as Solar-to-X, Power-to-X and CCU. The main ideas and discussions held by speakers, round table panels and participatory Q&A sessions are included, aiming to serve as a support document for guiding policymakers and decision-makers across Europe, highlighting the achievements of researchers and accelerating the commercialization of early-stage discoveries.

Abstract:

In our shift towards a sustainable future, rethinking the production of materials, chemicals and fuels is essential. Renewable resources – such as energy, water, and abundant molecules like carbon dioxide – offer significant potential to transform the global chemical and manufacturing sectors. The European Innovation Council (EIC) is committed to this transformative path, supporting it through various funding initiatives. Funding alone isn’t enough; a robust solar fuels innovation ecosystem is crucial for accelerating progress.

To address this, the EIC hosted a two-day Solar-to-X Innovation event on 4-5 June 2024. Over 130 delegates, including academics, start-ups, industry leaders, policymakers and investors from Europe and the US, gathered to discuss advancements from cutting-edge research to market-ready technologies. The event featured talks, panels, pitches and open discussions on the full spectrum of innovation—from academic breakthroughs to technology scaling and integration into existing energy systems. It represented a unique occasion to spark conversations and catalyze ideas around the future role of CCU, Power-to-X, and Solar-to-X technologies in the European energy system. This report provides a summary of the event’s sessions and key outcomes, offering insights into the current state of the field and ways to foster technology transfer and innovation.

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This two-day event addressed the integration and advancement of solar fuels and chemicals, through stakeholder pitches, breakout working sessions, policy presentations and a visit to the ArcelorMittal Steelanol plant. 

The workshop’s primary objectives were to identify and discuss industry priorities, needs, and potential contributions to the value chains of solar fuels and chemicals in Europe. The event also aimed to propose new business models, consolidate the innovation ecosystem and pave the way for the future of the SUNERGY initiative beyond the SUNER-C project.

Day 1: Setting the stage for innovation 

The workshop kicked off with an introduction by the SUNER-C coordinator, Bert Weckhuysen from Utrecht University, followed by an opening lecture by Max Fleischer from Siemens Energy. Their presentations highlighted the critical role of solar fuels and chemicals in decarbonizing industries and enhancing EU competitiveness, and introduced the concept of a “refinery of the future” in which small, abundant moelcules (instead of fossil intrants) would be transformed into chemicals and fuels using renewable energy sources.

During stakeholder pitches, 15 actors from academia and industry showcased their research or sector innovations. The first round included presentations by Babette Pettersen from LanzaTech, Pau Farràs from University of Galway, Christoph Falter from Synhelion, Janne Wallenius from SolarFoods, Marc Borghans from ING, as well as Han Huynh and Laurent Baraton from ENGIE. After a brief coffee break, the afternoon resumed with Hannah Johnson from Toyota Motor Europe, Ivan Souček from the Association of Chemical Industry of Czech Republic (SCHP CR), and Vincent Artero from CEA. These sessions were moderated by SUNER-C co-coordinator Frédéric Chandezon. 

In thematic breakout sessions participants focussed on three key topics: financial de-risking; business model development; and centralized vs decentralized applications.

To conclude the first day, Sophie Loots from Energy Cooperative ZuidtrAnt took the floor to provide insights about the ‘H₂ coop storage project’. Before the networking dinner, MyLeaf, the photovoltaic water electrolysis system brought from Leiden University, demonstrated standalone solar water splitting at the outside of the event building.

Day 2: Deepening the discussion & ArcelorMittal Steelanol plant visit 

The second day began with an opening by Anouschka Versleijen from Leiden University/Luris, who introduced the following stakeholder pitches: Eline van Berlo from SkyNRG, Esther Santos from Apria Systems, Joost Smits from Shell, Ludo Diels from VITO, Max Fleischer from Siemens Energy, and Fredericq Peigneux form Heidelberg Materials. 

The breakout sessions continued, building on the progress from the previous day. Afterwards, participants reconvened in the main auditorium where summaries of these sessions were presented by Arne Roth from Fraunhofer IGB, Ann Magnuson from Uppsala University, Max Fleischer from Siemens Energy, and Athanasios Konstandopoulos from SyNest. 

A policy session followed, moderated by Elena Guarneri from SUNERGY, featuring contributions from Philippe Schild from the European Commission’s DG RTD, – who covered R&I strategy and priorities on solar-to-X -, and Algreit Dume from DG GROW, on the transition pathways for the European chemical industry. Huub de Groot from Leiden University delivered the closing remarks, emphasizing collaborative efforts and stressing the ongoing need for dialogue and innovation in this critical sector. 

Participants then visited one of the highlights of the workshop: the ArcelorMittal Steelanol plant, where they witnessed firsthand the integration of innovative technologies in industrial settings. This site visit underscored the practical applications and potential of sustainable fuels and chemicals in driving sustainable industrial processes. 

Over this two-day event, participants had the opportunity to consider the challenges and opportunities that come with the perspective of re-evaluating the way that our societies produce and consume the chemicals and fuels needed for its functioning. From the visionary presentations which explored what our distant future could look like, to a visit of a pilot plant that gives us a glimpse of that future and through the down-to earth considerations explored in breakout sessions, this workshop gathered a wide diversity of stakeholders and is already furthering discussions on how to enact a just and sustainable transition away from fossil fuels as energy sources.

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June 4-5, 2024 | EnergyVille in Genk, Belgium.

The SUNERGY initiative and the EU-funded SUNER-C project co-organized the event “Harnessing Renewables for a Sustainable Future – Exploring CCU, Power-to-X and Solar-to-X Innovations”. This event was co-organized together with the European Commission, the European Innovation Council, IMEC, EuroTech Universities Alliance, and the EU projects CATART, CONDOR and FlowPhotoChem.

Following the European Innovation Council’s €24 million challenge announced in December 2023 to advance solar-to-X technologies, this two-day event brought together key stakeholders to discuss innovations for creating fossil-free products like renewable hydrogen, sustainable aviation fuels, and green fertilizers. The EIC challenge aims to develop devices at the prototype level, to establish metrics for a fair benchmarking and to explore underlying phenomena by means of computational materials science.

Image 1 – Han Huynh and Frédéric Chandezon presenting “SUNERGY and its Technological Roadmap: Solar-to-X in a nutshell”

The event joined speakers and panelists related with the solar-to-X topic, from different perspectives, arousing interesting discussions among participants. SUNER-C partners played a prominent role throughout the conference, delivering various speeches. Kristof Verbeek, from ArcelorMittal Belgium, presented a pitch introducing ‘The Steelanol demonstration plant’ as an example of a technological solution in development.

Nicola Armaroli, a member of SUNER-C’s international advisory board, delivered a keynote speech on the current status and future challenges of converting sunlight to molecules. Armaroli underscored the significance of solar energy and direct solar fuels for the EU’s future clean energy needs while noting the continued requirement for significant research and innovation. In the same session, Muriel Matheron from CEA presented a speech on the “EASIFUEL prototype,” a finalist for the EIC Horizon Prize on Artificial Photosynthesis.

On the second day, Han Huynh from ENGIE and Frédéric Chandezon from CEA discussed the advances towards the SUNERGY’s technological roadmap, one of the main outcomes from the SUNER-C project, during the “Devices of Tomorrow” session chaired by Carina Faber from EIC.

This talk was followed by the “Which technology will meet its expectations” session which addressed fair benchmarking and standards, with Joachim John from IMEC as panel chair and Moritz Schreiber from TotalEnergies as one of the thematic speakers who discussed the main technical challenges of industrial CO₂ electroreduction to ethylene.

Image 2 – Maximilian Fleischer presenting a keynote speech on “The need for green molecules for a sustainable economy”

Finally, in the context of the “Outlook: What else is needed? Insights from industry and governmental initiatives” session, Maximilian Fleischer from Siemens and Eric De Coninck from ArcelorMittal highlighted the necessity of green molecules for a sustainable economy and emphasized the importance of policy support for industrial CCU (Carbon Capture and Utilization). De Coninck stressed the need for a revision of EU policy to ensure the success of industrial CCU projects.

The event also included remarks that highlighted the European Innovation Council’s goals for solar-to-X technologies. Sessions covered societal challenges and deep tech solutions, with speakers from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education and the European Commission.

Breakout sessions focused on techno-sustainability assessments and advancing technologies from research to manufacturing stages. There was also a panel on fundraising strategies for scaling up solar-to-X innovations, moderated by Francesco Matteucci from the European Innovation Council.

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The paper, titled “The refinery of the future,” is co-authored by Bert Weckhuysen and Eelco Vogt, from Utrecht University. This article, in which made the cover of Nature in May, emphasizes the need to replace traditional crude oil processes with renewable energy-powered methods.

Oil refineries produce fuels and materials essential to modern life, from transportation fuels to everyday consumer products. Weckhuysen and Vogt’s paper details a comprehensive approach to decarbonizing these facilities by integrating renewable energy sources and innovative technologies like CO₂ capture, hydrogen electrolysis and producing chemicals and synthetic fuels from biomass or recycled plastics.

The transition, though costly—estimated at €320-520 billion annually until 2050 to replace all EU refineries —requires urgent policy and industry action to mitigate climate impact and ensure sustainable economic development. Coordinated efforts from researchers, policymakers, and industry leaders are needed to overcome technological and economic challenges.

The perspective, which has been also highlighted as an editorial article in “Nature News”, underscores the massive renewable energy requirements for these future refineries and the importance of creating resilient systems that can handle energy fluctuations inherent to renewable sources. The authors stress that achieving these ambitious goals by 2050 will necessitate significant investment and policy shifts, including carbon taxes and the elimination of fossil-fuel subsidies.

Read the full paper and editorial article on Nature and Nature News.

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